Part 6

CULTURE IN THE GOLDEN AGE

Renaissance culture was reaching Poland since the late 15th century, through trips by young noblemen for studies, diplomatic contacts, dynastic relations and trade.

The 16th century saw a particularly great development of the Polish Renaissance. It had a fairly large audience made up of well- educated noblemen and burghers. That development was further assisted by the patronage of the king and magnates. Krakow remained the hub of Polish culture as the city hosted the royal court and the University, had good printers, sculpture shops and architectural studios.

The Krakow Renaissance, radiating all over the land was developing under the influence of the Italian one. The Wawel Royal Castle was reconstructed by the Italians in the years 1507-1536. The Renaissance Chapel of the Sigismunds and the tombstones of Sigismund the Old and Sigismund Augustus became the examples to follow for similar tombstones throughout the Republic. Renaissance townhalls were being erected in towns.

New towns were developed according to the ideas of the Renaissance. The most excellent example was Zamosc, built by Bernardo Morando for Jan Zamoyski. The northern Renaissance prevailed in Royal Prussia, where it was brought thanks to the numerous trade contacts between Gdansk, Torun and Elblag with the Netherlands. A unique synthesis of Polish, Ruthenian and Armenian cultures was created in Lwow. A similar function of an ethnic-cultural conglomerate was played by Wilno [now called Vilnius].

The best achievements of literature were the works by Jan Kochanowski (1530- 1584), his epigrams [fraszki], Songs and Threnodies after the death of his daughter. The Reformation stimulated the development of political literature.

Lutheranism spread primarily in Royal Prussia, while Calvinism became the religion of part of the gentry in Little Poland and Lithuania. However, the majority of Polish and Lithuanian gentry remained Catholic, with Orthodox religion prevailing in Ruthenia. King Sigismund Augustus used to say, "I do not want to be the master of your conscience." Polish religious tolerance of the time allowed for the emergence of radical movements: the Arians--Polish and Bohemian brethren. Each of those religions tried to expand its influence through schooling and propaganda. Hence, there was development of education and printing, as well as several translations of the Bible into Polish.

Counter-Reformation also used education, especially Jesuit, for its purpose. The first gymnasiums were founded by the Jesuits in the 1560s and 1570s. The teaching at their secondary schools was on a very high level. The Jesuit College in Wilno developed into a university (1576) thanks to the financial support of King Stefan Batory.

A university, which became the center of Lutheranism, was established in Krolewiec (Koenigsberg).

Polish science developed in close contact with that of Europe. Especially advanced was astronomy, to mention only Mikolaj Kopernik (Nicholas Copernicus, 1473-1543), the author of "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" ["On the Revolution of the Earth and Sky"]. Also developing were cartography, surveying, medicine, law, and natural and agricultural sciences.

The greatest accomplishment of political science was Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski's "Commentarium de republica emendanda" ["Commentary on Reforms of the Polish Republic"]. The sermons in the Sejm [Parliament] by the royal preacher, Piotr Skarga, in a fine way combined propaganda and literary style.

Interest in national and world history resulted in numerous works, such as the Polish-language "Chronicle of the World" by Marcin Bielski (1556) and "De duabus Sarmatiis" by Maciej Miechowita (1517). The latter work reflected the growing conviction of the gentry that their ancestors differed from those of the peasants and burghers. According to their viewpoint, they, the nobles, traced their descent to the ancient tribe of the Sarmatas. That view gained particular currency in the latter half of the 16th century and in the 17th century. The attractiveness of the nobility's culture exerted much influence upon the rest of the social strata in the Republic. It was also attractive to their neighbors.